Introduction
Wetlands, commonly described as marshes, bogs, swamps, small ponds, sloughs, potholes, vernal pools, and wet meadows, are areas flooded or saturated by surface water or groundwater often enough and long enough to support types of vegetation and aquatic life that require, or are specially adapted to, saturated soil conditions. Concerns over wetland preservation in the United States today stem from their inherent environmental value and the fact that over half of the nations original wetlands have been destroyed. At one time, there were over 200 million acres of wetlands in the lower 48 states. Today, about 100 million acres remain. The majority of wetland losses are attributed to human activities; other losses are from natural causes such as erosion or sedimentation.
As part of its commitment to protect and preserve the environment, the USAF has adopted an aggressive and proactive stance in the battle to safeguard wetlands that remain on its installations and facilities. The purpose of this fact sheet is to provide readers with a basic understanding of wetlands and how they can be identified and protected. Also presented is a discussion of the federal laws and statutes designed to protect wetlands from further deterioration, and Department of Defense (DoD) and Air Force guidance for managing wetlands. Finally, successful wetlands management programs are highlighted.
What Are Wetlands?
The definition of wetlands recognized by all federal agencies, used in many state wetland programs, and found in Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 230.3(t) and the 1987 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual is as follows: "Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas."
More simply stated, wetlands are the link between water and land. They are areas covered by water or that have waterlogged soils for significant periods during the growing season, which is defined as the average period between the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost in the fall. Wetlands such as swamps and marshes may be easy for most people to identify, but some wetland areas are not so easily recognized, especially if they are dry part of the year.
Glossary of Wetland Types
(adapted from; Wetlands by W.J. Mitsch and J.G. Gosselink, 1993)
| Bog: | peat-accumulating wetland that has no significant inflows or outflows and supports acidophilic mosses, particularly sphagnum. |
| Bottomland: | lowlands along streams and rivers, usually on alluvial floodplains that are periodically flooded. These are usually forested and in the Southeast are often times called bottomland hardwoods. |
| Fen: | peat-accumulating wetland that receives some drainage from surrounding mineral soil and usually supports marshlike vegetation. |
| Marsh: | a frequently or continually inundated wetland characterized by emergent herbaceous vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions. |
| Mire: | synonymous with any peat-accumulating wetland. |
| Moor: | synonymous with peatland. A highmoor is a raised bog, whereas a lowmoor is a peatland in a basin or depression that is not elevated above its perimeter. |
| Muskeg: | large expanses of peatlands or bogs; term particularly used in Canada and Alaska. |
| Peatland: | a generic term of any wetland that accumulates partially decayed plant matter. |
| Playa: | found on the high plain of northern Texas and eastern New Mexico, these are marshlike ponds similar to potholes but with a different geologic origin; they are small basins that contain a clay or fine sandy loam hydric soil (not formed by glacial activity). |
| Pocosin: | evergreen shrub-bogs found on the Atlantic Coastal Plain from Virginia to northern Florida (comes from the Algonquin phrase for "swamp on a hill"). |
| Prairie pothole: | shallow, marshlike pond, particularly as found in the Dakotas and central Canadian provinces; formed by glacial action during the Pleistocene. |
| Riparian: | having to do with rivers; adjacent wetlands are usually referred to as riparian wetlands or riverine wetlands. |
| Slough: | swamp or shallow lake system in the northern and midwestern United States; a slowly flowing shallow swamp or marsh in the southeastern U.S. |
| Swamp: | wetland dominated by trees or shrubs. |
| Vernal pool: | shallow, intermittently flooded wet meadow, generally dry for most of the summer and fall; may be more appropriately defined as seasonally flooded wetlands associated with a Mediterranean-type climate of wet winters and dry summers. |
| Wet meadow: | grassland with waterlogged soil near the surface but without standing water for most of the year. |
Why Are Wetlands Important?
Wetlands are valuable in many ways. They serve as buffer zones that help protect shorelines from erosion caused by waves, storm surges, hurricanes, and tropical storms. Wetlands also act as natural water retention areas during floods and storms, reducing potentially damaging effects by storing excess water and releasing it slowly as water levels naturally drop. Wetland vegetation and root systems help to anchor sediments and prevent erosion of organic-rich soils.
Wetlands, especially seasonally flooded freshwater wetlands, serve as groundwater recharge areas that filter rain and surface water into underlying aquifers. Aquifers are frequently used as sources of drinking water and may also discharge to larger, nearby bodies of water. This filtering action of wetlands removes environmental pollutants (such as chemicals, pesticides and heavy metals) from water by neutralizing and breaking them down biologically, and releasing the naturally processed elements into the environment. Wetlands can also remove excess nitrogen and phosphorous from runoff water or rainwater. Other important ways wetlands help control water pollution include:
- Wetland plants provide surfaces on which bacteria can grow. The bacteria play an important role in reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water and maintaining dissolved oxygen levels.
- Wetland plants, roots, and stems provide media for filtration and absorption of pollutants.
- Wetland plants limit sunlight penetration, which inhibits algae growth and increased BOD.
- Quiescent waters in wetlands enhance sedimentation of solids.
- Bacteria utilize and transform chemical pollutants.
- Nitrogen is removed via bacterial nitrification and dinitrification processes.
- Phosphorous is removed by plants.
- Metals are precipitated out of the water, which effectively prevents harmful consequences downstream; however, the effect also results in concentration of metals in the removal areas.
- Organic chemicals biodegrade and are adsorbed on suspended particles and organic material.
Wetlands also offer food and habitat for animals, provide feeding, nesting and wintering areas for migrating waterfowl, and provide fish with spawning, feeding, cover, and nursery habitat. Wetlands are also crucial to the survival of many threatened and endangered species of animals and plants. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that up to 43% of threatened and endangered species rely directly or indirectly on wetlands for their survival. Wetlands are a key component of the commercial fishing and food production industry in the U. S. and throughout the world. Estuarine (saltwater) wetlands provide critical ecological support for a vast array of fishes, shellfishes, and crustaceans that provide food for hundreds of millions of the world's population. In 1991, the dockside value of fish landed in the U.S. was $3.3 billion, which served as the basis of a $26.8 billion fishery processing and sales industry. An estimated 71% of this value is derived from fish species that depend directly or indirectly on coastal wetlands during their life cycles.
Beautiful as well as functional, wetlands are also important for recreational activities. Each year, millions of birdwatchers, tourists, and waterfowl hunters visit state and national wetlands parks and sanctuaries. Wetlands tourism in the U.S. is a multibillion dollar industry, from which much of the profits go back into management and preservation programs.
Wetlands Identification
Wetlands are areas where frequent and prolonged presence of water at or near the soil surface is the primary driver of the "natural system" - i.e., the kinds of soils that form, the plants that grow, and the fish and/or wildlife communities that use the habitat.
Typical Wetland Characteristics
Generally applicable criteria for identifying wetlands include:
- Floodplain and other lower elevation areas where standing water is present for prolonged periods of time (>10%) during the growing season. Most wetlands lack both standing water and waterlogged soils during at least part of the growing season.
- Areas supporting plant communities that require standing water for at least part of the growing season (e.g., cypress-gum swamps, cordgrass marshes, cattail marshes, bulrush marshes, tule marshes, and sphagnum bogs).
- Areas with soils classified as peats or mucks.
- Areas periodically flooded by tides, even if only by strong, wind-driven, or springtides.
Non-typical Wetlands
While most wetlands can be easily identified by the above characteristics, some wetlands may be more difficult to identify. In these instances, scientists must carefully examine the vegetation, soil, and hydrology of an area for specific wetland indicators. Hydrology is the study of the interaction between surface water and subsurface water (groundwater), water's interaction with the atmosphere and the earth's crust, as well as its occurrence, movement, and physical/chemical properties. Non-typical wetlands may exhibit highly modified plants, soils, and hydrologic conditions. Interpretation and identification of these wetlands often requires highly skilled personnel with wetland recognition/delineation training.
Vegetation Indicators
Almost 5,000 different plant species can characterize and help identify a wetland. However, the presence of vegetation characteristic of a wetland can usually be determined by knowing only a few species. For example, cattails, bulrushes, cordgrass, sphagnum moss, bald cypress, willows, mangroves, sedges, rushes, arrowheads and water plantains usually occur in wetlands. Other plant indicators of a wetland are trees having shallow root systems, swollen trunks (e.g., bald cypress or tupelo gum), or roots growing from the plant stem or trunk above the soil surface.
Emergent plants grow in shallow water with the root system submerged under the water and the upper vegetation rising above the water surface. These plants, including cattails, rushes and reeds, help oxygenate wetland soils, assist in regulating water flow, and provide large amounts of organic materials to wetlands. Submergent and floating plants, such as water hyacinth and duckweed, provide submerged root systems and media for the growth of beneficial bacteria.
Soil Indicators
Approximately 2,000 identified soil types occur in wetlands. All of these soil types are hydric, which means soils that develop in low-oxygen conditions caused when soils are saturated with water for long periods during the growing season. Lists of specific hydric soil types and more information about hydric soils in general are available on the World Wide Web (WWW) at the addresses listed below under Wetlands Identification Information Sources. If the specific soil types in an area are not known, evidence of hydric soils might include:
- Soil made up of mostly decomposed plant material (peats or mucks);
- Soil with a thick layer (8 inches or more) of decomposing plant material on the surface;
- Soil with a bluish gray, gray, or dark dull color 10 to 12 inches below the surface. This type soil is called gleyed soil. Gleysation is a soil-forming process, operating under oxygen deficient and poor drainage conditions, which results in the reduction of iron, manganese, and other elements which cause gray colors and mottles.
- Soil having a sulfurous, rotten egg odor;
- Soil that is sandy and has a layer of three or more inches of decomposing plant matter on the surface; and
- Soil that is sandy and has dark stains or streaks of organic matter in the upper layer 3 to 12 inches below the soil surface. (These streaks are decomposed plant material attached to the soil particles.) Soil from these streaks leaves a dark stain when it is rubbed between the fingers.
Hydrologic Indicators
Wetland hydrology refers to the presence of water either above the soil surface or in the subsurface for a sufficient period of the year to significantly influence the plant types and soils that occur in the area. The most reliable way to measure for the presence of water in a wetland area is through the use of a gauging station or groundwater monitoring well. However, such information is unavailable in most areas and, when available, requires analysis by trained experts. Thus, most wetland hydrologic indicators are those that can be readily observed and interpreted during a field inspection. Most indicators observed do not disclose the frequency, timing, or duration of flooding or soil saturation. However, the following are indicators of the periodic presence of soil saturation or flooding:
- Standing or flowing water observed on the surface for seven or more consecutive days during the growing season.
- Waterlogged soil. This is determined by digging a hole 12 inches deep and examining the soil profile. The soil is waterlogged if water stands in the hole, if the soil glistens with water at any depth to 12 inches or if water can be squeezed from the soil.
- Visible watermarks on trees or other upright objects. Such marks are evidence that water periodically covers the area to the marked depth.
- Drift lines, i.e., small piles of debris oriented in the direction of water movement across an area, which often occur along contour lines and represent the approximate extent of flooding in an area.
- Debris lodged in trees or piled against other objects.
- Thin layers of sediment deposited on leaves or other objects. Sometimes these sediments mix with plant fragments to form crusts on the soil surface.
Wetlands Identification Information Sources
A listing of wetland plants species and soil types known to occur in specific regions of the U.S., as well as a variety of other technical resources related to wetland plant, soils, and hydrology, can be obtained from:
Wetlands Protection
The federal government protects wetlands through Executive Orders, regulations, economic incentives (e.g., tax deductions for selling or donating wetlands to a qualified organization), cooperative programs, and acquisition (e.g., establishing national wildlife refuges). More information about wetlands protection is available from the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) "America's Wetlands - Our Vital Link Between Land and Water" WWW site at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/vital/toc.html.
Beyond the federal level, a number of states have enacted laws to regulate wetlands, and some counties and towns have adopted local wetlands protection ordinances or have changed the way development is permitted in consideration of wetlands protection. Most coastal states have significantly reduced losses of coastal wetlands through protective laws. Few states, however, have laws specifically regulating activities in inland wetlands, although some states and local governments have non-regulatory programs that help protect wetlands. Recently, partnerships to manage whole watersheds have developed among federal, state, tribal, and local governments; nonprofit organizations; and private landowners. The goal of these partnerships is to implement comprehensive, integrated watershed protection approaches. A watershed approach recognizes the inter-connectedness of water, land, and wetlands, and results in more complete solutions that address a larger proportion of the many factors causing wetland degradation.
Summarized below are the primary governing regulations applicable to Air Force activities that impact wetlands.
Executive Order 11990
Executive Order (EO) 11990, Protection of Wetlands, 24 May 1997, directs all federal agencies, including the military, to avoid the destruction, loss, or degradation of wetlands whenever there is a practical alternative. This leadership role is to be undertaken by federal agencies whenever: 1) federal lands or facilities are acquired, managed, or disposed of (many AF installations are faced with the transition of military property to the private sector because of base realignment and closure); 2) federal construction and improvement projects are undertaken; and 3) other federal activities and programs are undertaken that may affect land use. The importance of public participation is also recognized by EO 11990, which directs each agency to have an early public review of plans for new construction in wetlands.
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1989
NEPA requires the federal government to consider every significant impact a proposed action may have on the environment, including wetlands. Regulations promulgated under NEPA at Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 6.108 require the completion of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if any proposed action may have significant adverse effects on wetlands, or if any major part of a structure or facility constructed or operated under the proposed action may be located in wetlands.
The Clean Water Act
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) established a federal program to regulate, and issue permits for, the discharge of dredged and fill material into the waters of the U.S., including wetlands. The EPA's Office of Wetlands Protection administers the CWA Section 404 Wetlands Program. (More information about EPA's wetlands program is available at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/.) Responsibility for administering this program is shared with EPA by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). EPA is responsible for the overall implementation of the program and developing guidelines for reviewing permits. EPA also actively reviews Section 404 permit applications. USACE oversees the day-to-day administration of the program and issues the wetland permits. The USFWS has important advisory responsibilities under Section 404.
Compliance with Section 404 guidelines must be explicitly demonstrated before USACE will issue a permit to fill, dredge, or otherwise alter a wetland. Permit applicants must demonstrate they have:
- Taken steps to avoid wetland impacts where practical;
- Minimized potential impacts to wetlands; and
- Provided compensation for any remaining unavoidable impacts through activities to restore or create new wetlands.
In addition, the EPA has the authority to veto a permit issued by the USACE in cases where it believes there would be an unacceptable adverse impact on municipal water supplies, shellfish beds and fisheries, wildlife, and/or recreational areas.
Public pressure to halt further destruction of wetlands is increasing, resulting in more stringent requirements in the permitting process. Wetland permit applications are rigorously examined by USACE, EPA, USFWS and the public. State and local governments where the wetlands are located often have a role in the permit review process, as well as additional laws and regulations that must be followed, further slowing the permitting process. In fact, Section 404 requires permit applicants to obtain state water quality certifications before a wetland permit can be issued.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Nationwide Permit (NWP) Program
The Clean Water Act's Nationwide Permit (NWP) Program authorizes the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to grant general permits for projects that "have minimal adverse effect on the aquatic environment with little or no delay for the regulated public." The USACE uses general permits, including nationwide permits (NWPs), to authorize 80 percent of the activities it regulates. Over the years, the USACE has issued over 30 NWPs, which require periodic extension. In December 1996, they extended (reissued) each NWP, most without significant changes. Some changes, however, may affect the development and operation of military installations:
- The USACE revised the definition of "regulated excavated activities" used in several NWPs to mean "any addition, including any redeposit, of dredged material, including excavated material, into waters of the United States [that] is incidental to any activity, including mechanized landclearing, ditching, channelization, or other excavation."
- The USACE issued two new NWPs. NWP 30 authorizes activities associated with the management of wildlife on federally or state-owned or -managed land, including the repair, replacement, or maintenance of existing water-control structures, repair of existing dikes, and plowing/discing to impede succession, prepare seed beds, or establish fire breaks. New NWP 31 authorizes the maintenance of existing flood-control facilities that were previously authorized or constructed by the USACE and transferred to a local sponsor for operation and maintenance. The USACE district will review each project to establish baseline conditions (such as channel depth and configuration) and an appropriate schedule for maintenance.
- The most significant change, however, was made to NWP 26. NWP 26 authorized projects that would have up to ten acres of impact in certain aquatic systems, defined in particular as "isolated and headwater aquatic systems." Under the modified NWP 26, the national thresholds for notifying the USACE and for the maximum allowable impact are reduced to one-third and three acres (from the old standards of one and ten acres). Any project over three acres will now require a USACE standard individual permit. Projects from one to three acres will be subject to preconstruction notification (PCN), which will include coordination with federal and state agencies. Projects from one-third to one acre will require notification and review by the USACE. All permittees who use NWP 26 for property less than one-third acre are also required to report the acreage affected and its location. USACE may order that the majority of impacts above one-third acre be offset by mitigation banking. Opponents of the old NWP 26 considered it to be the largest single source of permitted wetland loss in the nation. Some states and regions have authority to modify or limit the application of NWPs in their jurisdictions, and a number of states have placed limits on the types of projects eligible for coverage under the NWP 26.
The USACE also announced it would extend NWP 26 for two years and eventually replace it with new, more activity-specific NWPs. In October 1998, the USACE announced its decision to change the expiration date of NWP 26 from 13 December 1998 to 15 September 1999 to ensure adequate time to involve other agencies and the public in the process. The USACE will publish, sometime in mid 1999, an additional Federal Register notice seeking public comment on the final version of the replacement NWPs. More information about USACE programs is available at http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwo/reg/.
DoDI 4715.3
Department of Defense Instruction (DoDI) 4715.3, Environmental Conservation, 3 May 1996, addresses the integrated management of natural and cultural resources on property under DoD control. The DoD has identified wetlands to be biologically or geographically significant or sensitive natural resources to be protected, inventoried, and managed in accordance with procedures outlined in DoDI 4715.3. DoD lands shall be managed for the goal of no net loss of wetlands. DoD encourages mitigation banking, which means action taken to compensate for future adverse impacts to wetlands by creating substitute wetlands in advance of any specific undertaking.
AFI 32-7041
Air Force Instruction (AFI) 32-7041, Water Quality Compliance, 13 May 1994, provides a general outline of basic water management regulations applicable to the Air Force. Specific sections of the AFI direct compliance with the Clean Water Act as enacted in governing EPA and USACE regulations. The AFI requires installations to secure permits in accordance with USACE regulations if construction activities impact installation wetlands.
Conclusion
Wetlands are a valuable natural resource that provide important flood and erosion control functions, serve as habitat for highly diverse populations of plants and animals, play an important role in pollution control, are vital to the economic success of the fisheries industries, and serve as popular recreational areas. The USAF is fully committed to preserving and protecting wetland resources under its control. While the USAF tries to avoid negative wetland impacts, it is sometimes unavoidable. In these rare cases, the USAF works closely with EPA, USACE, USFWS, state and local authorities, and the public to fully comply with all regulations and minimize any adverse impact on the wetlands. The success stories that follow highlight how wetland restoration and management at Air Force facilities have enhanced the environment.
Wetlands Success Stories
Travis AFB Dives into Vernal Pool Management
by SSgt Jason Tudor, AF News Service, 28 January 1998
TRAVIS AIR FORCE BASE, Calif. - Even the smallest residents of Air Mobility Command's busiest airlift base have a say in how business here is done on a day to day basis. Take the quarter-inch long fairy shrimp, for instance. While giant C-5 Galaxies soar slowly overhead and KC-10 Extenders jet off for another refueling mission, Travis AFB environmental officials manage a program that protects the shrimp and seven other species of endangered life found at this northern California base. Located just 50 miles northeast of San Francisco, Travis AFB is home to some 350 vernal pools. Vernal pools really amount to nothing more than puddles of water that collect after heavy rain, which is frequent in the winter time in this part of the nation.
Over a period of time, the pools begin to form their own ecosystem and support life. The life those pools support includes the fairy shrimp, an endangered species, protected under two different federal laws, including the Clean Water Act. In addition, the law protects two species of birds and four different plant types. They all can either live-in or frequent these vernal pools. The vernal pools are classified federally as wetlands. If they are in place for more than two weeks at a time, they can theoretically sustain life forms. If the pool has an ecosystem forming, law protects it. The several hundred pools can be found almost anywhere on Travis' 5,020 acres, from the flightline to places where Travis airmen exercise their war fighting skills. Travis started managing the pools in 1994.
Key to the life of Travis' pools is the program manager, agronomist Robert C. Holmes. Holmes has worked as the agronomist here for some 17 years. An agronomist specializes in the science of soil management and the production of field crops. Holmes duties as agronomist here are farther reaching. He also serves as the base's game warden and top natural resources person. "During the summer months, a vernal pool is just another low spot in the ground. If you're not familiar with the plants, you'd never recognize them," Holmes said. The pools return every year, varying in size and the kinds of species living in them. "There are a lot of years we don't get any fairy shrimp at all," Holmes said. "It all depends on the amount of rain."
While most people could perceive what Holmes does as "puddle management," there's a strong thread of environmental conscience and a fabric of public trust woven into what he does from day to day. "We are mandated by federal law to protect and enhance endangered species and their critical habitat," Holmes said. "The cost of managing the pools is almost nothing, unless one is damaged or upheaval takes place." Most recently, workers paving an area near Travis' aero club damaged a vernal pool that now has to be repaired. That's when the costs start rising. "If we damage a pool, it's about $100,000 per acre," Holmes said. "The policy in California is for every acre you damage, you have to return it in a three to one ratio. So, if we destroy one acre, the state says we have to rebuild, buy or purchase three acres of wetland. It can get fairly expensive really quick," he added.
Holmes said the importance to the environment couldn't be underestimated. "We're protecting the species. This also benefits the environment. In the state of California, most wetlands that contain these species are on federal property. And, when you go out there in the spring, the flowers are pretty to look at. If you're really not concerned with the environment and not concerned with what's around, the average person will probably never notice," he said. Management of the pools is just another step in the Air Force and federal government's increased awareness of the environment, Holmes said. "We don't want to stop progress, but we've got to protect what's here," Holmes concluded.
MacDill AFB Contributes to Florida Restoration Project
by SSgt Joe Davis, 6th Air Refueling Wing, Public Affairs, 14 July 1997
(Courtesy of Air Mobility Command News Service)
MACDILL AIR FORCE BASE, Fla. (AFNS) - Phase One of the Florida-funded wetlands restoration project at MacDill officially ended with a dedication ceremony 27 June 1997. "This restoration project gives the Air Force and MacDill AFB a chance to do our part, and this dedication ceremony is an indication that we are heading in the right direction," said Col. Richard Wirth, Vice Commander, 6th Air Refueling Wing.
MacDill entered into an agreement with the Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) in June 1991 to conduct a habitat and wetlands restoration project, according to Shelley Urbinek, 6th Civil Engineer Squadron Environmental Flight. MacDill has spent $33,000 to relocate a sewage pipeline, while the management district provided all other assets, including equipment, plants and manpower. "We were anxious to work with MacDill because it's one of the largest single land owners on Tampa Bay," said Mike Perry from the management district. "This restoration project represents the first of a proposed series of cooperative environmental efforts by the Surface Water Improvement and Management Program of the SWFWMD and the base. We've developed a great relationship, and we want to continue moving forward."
Phase One of the project encompassed 34 acres of coastal habitats including open-water lagoons, tidal channels, intertidal marshes, mangroves, transitional habitats and uplands. Besides restoring the wetlands, the project also was designed to improve the quality of the water in Tampa Bay. "Exotic [non-native] plants were removed from the area and replaced with native plants to help reduce coastal erosion and limit the level of impurities that enter the bay," said Bob Hoffman, 6th CES Environmental Flight. "The wetlands act as a natural buffer to help absorb impurities caused from pesticides and fertilizers, before they can reach the bay."
Along with the management district and Air Force, volunteers played a large part in the project. More than 22,500 wetland and 1,200 upland plants were planted by volunteers, according to Perry. To end the dedication ceremony, three herons and an egret from the Suncoast Seabird Sanctuary were released back to their natural habitat. "We couldn't think of a better forum to release the rehabilitated seabirds than at a wetlands dedication," said Anita Bernstein, Suncoast Seabird Sanctuary volunteer rescuer." All of these birds came to us from the Pinellas County area, either from falling out of a nest or people finding the injured birds and turning them over to us. Once the medical staff feels the birds are rehabilitated, they are returned back to the wild." Along with herons and egrets, the wetlands contain several threatened and endangered species, including the American alligator, piping plover, Southeastern American kestrel, bald eagle and wood stork. Other animals, such as rattlesnakes, raccoons, otters, marsh rabbits and a variety of birds, also make their homes in the wetlands.
Rookery Serves as Breeding Ground for Variety of Species
by Carla Pampe, 2d Bomb Wing, Public Affairs, Barksdale AFB, LA
They can be found soaring through the skies of Barksdale, but they don't need a runway, and aren't as easy to spot as the mighty B-52. A variety of migratory birds flock to Barksdale AFB, LA each year by the thousands, using the protective cover of the base's wetlands to build a rookery, or nesting ground, to hatch and raise their young.
The bird rookery is part of Barksdale's wetland restoration project, which pumps water from Red Chute Bayou to flood a hardwood area. The project began in 1991 with funding from Congress, said Jean Mikeal, forestry technician, and the purpose was to restore a wetland area which had once been a natural overflow from the Red River, but had dried up when several canals and dams were built years ago. "The project was completed in 1992. We began pumping water in, and that's when the birds came," said Mikeal. "The population has been increasing annually since the project began. When they first started coming, it was only cattle egrets, snowy egrets and little blue herons. Then we began seeing white ibis and great egrets. Just in the last two years we've seen a few tricolor herons. These are gray, yellow and white herons that are more commonly found nesting in south Louisiana." Other species found in the rookery are Louisiana herons and anhinga, or water turkey.
"We keep the water on the rookery longer than on the rest of the area so that birds can raise their young," said Pat Stinson, wildlife biologist. "The birds usually begin arriving about March, and the majority of the babies begin hatching around the first part of June. The northern-most breeding ground for white ibis is right here at Barksdale." Stinson said all of the birds that breed in the rookery are migratory birds, many of which winter in Mexico and Central America. "But most of them come back every year," he said. Mikeal said that although the wetlands were probably a big attracting factor for the birds, members of the natural resources section didn't originally set out to have a rookery on base. "We can't force the birds to build a rookery here," she said. "We can provide the habitat for them, but birds have a mind of their own and will nest where they want to. There's also no guarantee they will continue to nest here - rookeries often move around. However, this will continue to be a good habitat because we pump the water in, so as long as the birds are satisfied, they'll probably continue to come."
For More Information...
- Services offered by Headquarters Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Environmental Conservation and Planning Directorate (HQ AFCEE/EC) include the documentation of natural resources and endangered species. Contact AFCEE/EC at DSN 240-3907 or visit http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil/EC/.
- The EPA's Office of Water Wetlands Program encourages and enables others to act effectively in protecting and restoring the nation's wetlands and associated ecosystems. Visit the EPA Wetlands Program at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands.
- The Wetlands Regulation Center contains links to federal, state, proposed, and pending regulations; government policies; guidance; and legal information concerning activities regulated under Sections 401 and 404 of the Clean Water Act. Visit the Wetlands Regulation Center at http://www.wetlands.com/.
- USACE, Wetlands Research Program (WRP). The USACE WRP is part of the Wetlands Research & Technology Center (WRTC), which consolidates administrative, technological, and research skills in the area of wetlands science and engineering. Visit the WRP homepage at http://www.wes.army.mil/el/wrtc/wrp/wrp.html.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory (NWI). The NWI presents information on the characteristics, extent, and status of the Nation's wetlands and deepwater habitats. The NWI has mapped 89% of the lower 48 states, and 31% of Alaska. Visit the NWI at http://www.nwi.fws.gov/.
- USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WLI). The mission of the WLI is to develop, adapt, and disseminate science and technology needed to protect and restore wetlands. Visit the WLI at http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/wli.
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